Archaeological excavations have shown that the life of the Minoan people was concentrated around palaces consisting of various structures. These palaces were constantly expanding, becoming more and more adorned, becoming real works of art. Wonderfully executed frescoes, weapons, bronze figurines tell us about the high level of development, the flourishing of the Minoan culture. But the natural catastrophe (eruption of the volcano on the island of Fehr), the various invasions of warlike aliens led to the collapse of the Minoan civilization, which gave way to another civilization, the Mycenaean civilization. These two cultures due to their close geographical location were very interconnected. That’s why in Mycenae, as in the Minoan civilization, life was centered around palaces. But in Mycenaean culture a certain militant mood prevailed. This manifested itself in the more fortified walls of the palaces, and in the images on the frescoes. If, for example, the main subjects of Minoan frescoes were scenes from life and life with images of animals and plants, then scenes with military scenes, hunting episodes, etc. prevailed on Mycenaean frescoes.

Mycenaean civilization ceased to exist in the XI century. BC. E., when the territory of this civilization came to the Greek tribes – the Dorians. This time is marked by the flourishing of the Iron Age in Greece, a new period begins, named for the Homeric period by the name of the great ancient Greek poet Homer. It was his famous and magnificent poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” that gave an opportunity to learn about this time.

The Homeric period is not distinguished by the grandeur of architecture and fine arts. According to the works of Homer, even the nobility lives in wooden houses or houses of unfired brick, whereas several centuries before this were so common palaces. But there were cultural achievements during the Homeric period. For example, the ceramic vases, decorated with a wonderful ornament in the form of geometric figures, statuettes of bronze, terracotta figurines, testify to the great craftsmanship.

The Homeric period ended with the beginning of a new phase – the Great Colonization, which took place during the VIII-V centuries. BC. e. A new period has begun, archaic.

The development of sciences begins, especially astronomy and geometry. Egyptian influence played a big role here. This influence also affected the Greek art. Architecture and sculpture of ancient Greece of the archaic period originate in Ancient Egypt.

There are changes in the social structure of society. The generic community is replaced by city-states, which are called polis. The largest of them: Athens, Thebes, Sparta, etc. Initially, separately functioning policies begin to unite under the common name of Hellas. Formed so-called centers, which are sanctuaries, there is a common, uniform for all policies of the pantheon of the gods. The supreme god was Zeus the Thunderer. His Hera was the mistress of the sky, there were many of their children (Athena is the goddess of wisdom, Apollo is the god of light, the patron of the arts, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty and love, etc.), which the people worshiped. But the Greeks worshiped not only the gods. There were many myths about the Greek heroes (Hercules, Perseus, etc.).

The most important phenomenon of the archaic period of Ancient Greece was the beginning of the Olympic Games, dedicated to Zeus. The first Olympic Games took place in 776 BC. e. and have been held since then every four years.

In addition to the Olympic Games, others were held: once every two years, the Isthmian Games were held in honor of Poseidon (the lord of the seas), Pythian games were held every four years, in which athletes and musicians competed in honor of the god Apollo.

The ancient Greeks made a great contribution to the formation of such a science as philosophy. It was in one of the developed regions of Greece, Ionia, during the time of the archaic period that such philosophical science as natural philosophy was born. In Ionia lived such thinkers as Anaximenus (585-525 BC), Thales (624-546 BC), etc.

Great heights and mathematics. Here the main merit belongs to the ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician Pythagoras of Samos (540-500 BC). He studied the whole numbers and proportions. He also made a great contribution to astronomy and music theory.

In the literature of the archaic, lyrical poetry occupies a leading position. If the epic prevailed in the Homeric period, now all attention is shifted to the inner experiences of man. A significant place is occupied by such poets as Sappho (circa 610-580 BC), Anacreon (second half of the 6th century BC), Alkey (boundary VII-VI centuries BC).

In the sixth century BC a new literary genre appeared – a fable. Her appearance is primarily connected with the name of Aesop.

In the archaic period, the Greek theater appears, the origins of which were dances in honor of Dionysus, when from the general choir began to identify the actors who later became actors.

For the art of the period of archaism, the search for a beautiful, some aesthetic ideal is typical. That is why the main types of sculpture were:

1. kuros – a naked young man;
2. bark – a young girl in long robes with a smile, later called archaic.

In the archaic period, great development was given to architecture. First of all, these are temples and sculptures that form single ensembles.

For the temples there are two types of orders:

1. strict and geometrically correct Doric;
2. more ornately saturated ionic.

In addition to architecture, in the archaic period the pottery flourishes. Three types of vessels were invented:

1. black-figure technique (red clay was painted black, then painted with various subjects);
2. red-figure technique (differed in more detailed drawing);
3. attic technique (depicting scenes from the life and life of the people).

Archaic culture left its imprint on the next stage of the development of culture – the classical period.

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1. Early Middle Ages (V-XI centuries);
2. The classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries).

Early Middle Ages

The main feature of the early Middle Ages is the spread of Christianity.

Christianity appeared in the first century in Palestine, then, spread across the Mediterranean, in the fourth century became the state religion of the Roman Empire. Gradually, the priesthood institution begins to take shape.

The influence of religion on the cultural life of the Middle Ages was so great that it is impossible to consider cultural achievements without taking into account an important spiritual factor. The Church becomes the center of all cultural and social processes in society. That is why theology (theology) at the time of the Middle Ages becomes the head of all other cultures that somehow had to obey him.

Theology first of all was to protect the official church from all sorts of heresies. This concept arose in the era of the early Middle Ages and meant those streams of Christianity that deviated from the official doctrines of the Christian church. They were treated.

1. Monophysitism – the current that denied the duality of Christ, his divine-human nature.
2. Nestorianism – the current that preached the thesis that the human nature of Christ exists by itself. According to their teaching, Christ was born a human being, and only then he accepted the divine nature.
3. Adoptian heresy – the doctrine that Christ was born a man, and then was adopted by God.
4. Cathars – heresy, according to which all earthly, material is the product of the devil. Her supporters preached asceticism, were against the institution of the church.
5. Waldenses – adherents of heresy, who opposed the clergy and the official church, were supporters of asceticism and poverty.
6. Albigensians – a heretical movement that opposed the official church, its dogmas, church land tenure, clergy.

The official church did not tolerate heresy, struggled in every way with their spread. In the classical Middle Ages, such a method as the Inquisition will spread.

Among different cultures of the Middle Ages, one can single out philosophy.

Philosophy in the Middle Ages is the first “servant” of theology. Among the philosophers who fully satisfied the wishes of the theologians, it should be noted Thomas Aquinas (1225-1275 AD). In his works he sought to prove the existence of God. In his opinion, God is the supreme cause of all phenomena and processes, the reason seeking the answer must come to it.

The lower sciences were astronomy, history, geometry, etc. They submitted to a philosophy that itself submitted to theology. Therefore, everything created, founded by these sciences was under the constant control of the church. The accumulation of knowledge resulted in the creation of encyclopedias, textbooks in mathematics, medicine. But everywhere there was still a religious dominant that did not give the will of the thought of scientists. The Church managed to touch even the artistic creativity. The artist had to strictly follow the church canons. First of all, he had to reflect the perfection of the world order. In the early medieval period, the Romanesque style in art develops. All the architectural structures of the Romanesque style (temples, castles, monastic complexes) differed in massiveness, severity, serf character, and high altitude. The most famous examples of the Romanesque style are such buildings as the cathedrals of Notre Dame in Poitiers, Toulouse, Arne (France), cathedrals in Noric, Oxford (England), the church of the monastery Maria Lach (Germany), etc.

In literature, the predominance of the works of the heroic epos was outlined. The most famous works are The Poem of Beowulf (England) and The Elder Eda (Scandinavia). These works were related to oral poetry and were transmitted by music singers.

In addition to the epic, in the early Middle Ages, sagas were widespread. The most famous of them were The Saga of Egil, The Saga of Nyala, The Saga of Eric the Red, and others. The sagas described the past, they were the sources by which one can learn about the ancient peoples.

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The goal of the Enlightenment is to make the whole nation more educated. That is why the significance of the Enlightenment in general for the whole cultural process in the world is very great. Thanks to him, the cultural framework, which previously covered only a small section of society, has expanded noticeably. It is thanks to such a concept as the Enlightenment that the definitions of “cultural” and “educated” could refer to any person who is striving to enrich his inner world, even if this person had little means.

Equality is what the Enlightenment brought to life. Just the notion of equality and became the key to further cultural development. The fact that all people are initially equal to each other and have the same rights to further development as individuals, and served as the basis for creating the ideals of the Enlightenment. Who was the ideal of this era, which is often called the “century of Reason”? Of course, a person who distinguishes the ability of an animal to think rationally. It is he who possesses not only physical, but also spiritual power.

According to many thinkers, the Enlightenment is the main engine of social progress.

For example, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) wrote that “Enlightenment is a person’s exit from the state of his minority…”. And “minority” is “the inability to use one’s mind without leadership on the part of someone else”. According to I. Kant, in this minority, a person “is on his own fault”, solely because of “lack of determination and courage to use” independently by his own intellect.

This desire for independence, the participation of each person in the reconstruction of the surrounding world through the possibilities of his reason, and has led to a radical change in the religious perception and thinking of the people. One of the extremes of these changes is the emergence of atheist enlighteners who denied religious beliefs and cults and, contrary to these ideas, placed human beings above all else. As a consequence, the appearance in the Age of Enlightenment of a new form of faith – deism. The Enlightener-deists did not deny the existence of God as the world’s mind, and also that it is the root cause of the world. That is, according to deists, God is the creator of the world as a kind of “machine”, to which he defined the laws of its movement. Any further intervention of God in the arrangement of this “machine” by the deists is rejected, here a man comes to the fore who is making his own corrections.

It is worth noting that the Enlightenment era was characterized by optimistic sentiment associated with the belief that a person can be changed for the better. No wonder there was another definition of the Enlightenment as a “golden age of utopia”. This utopia primarily concerned a change in the political and social foundations. A harmonious society that lives by reason, with a sense of responsibility for each individual, is the ideal social system of Utopian enlighteners. But despite the great desire to receive such a society, many Utopians, for example, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), believed little in his ability.

The feudal system gave way to a new bourgeois type of economic relations. But this transition was not very smooth. It was preceded not by gradual progressive transformations, but by real upheavals that touched various aspects of human life.

The Age of Enlightenment, which began with the last revolution in England (1689), later included three revolutions:

1) industrial in England;

2) political in France;

3) philosophical and aesthetic in Germany.

But the Enlightenment affected not only the social structure of society, but also cultural development.

In philosophy, the leadership of rationalism has emerged, which replaced metaphysics. In other words, it was the mind that became the basis of people’s knowledge and behavior. Only the mind recognized the decisive word, both in life, and in science, and even in religion.

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Being part of the ancient culture, Roman culture had a number of common features with the culture of Ancient Greece. This was facilitated by the fact that in its heyday Ancient Rome annexed Greece. But despite the fact that many features of Roman culture were borrowed from older cultures, the culture of Rome brought a lot of its own, it has a certain identity and uniqueness, something that makes it so important for the whole world culture.

The formation of the culture of Ancient Rome took place in several stages, mainly associated with the historical and political changes that took place on the territory of Roman civilization. The conditional division according to the stages of development of ancient Roman culture is as follows:

1) the period of Etruscan culture;

2) the royal period;

3) Republic period:

1. a) an early republic;
2. b) a late republic;

4) the period of the empire:

5) early empire;

6) a late empire.

It is impossible to consider these stages as unrelated time intervals. On the contrary, the interrelation of these periods is reflected in the transfer of accumulated knowledge and experience from generation to generation.

Let’s consider each stage separately and in interrelation with the subsequent periods.

Etruscan Culture

The name of this stage in the development of Roman culture comes from the name of the civilization that was formed on the Apennine peninsula. The appearance of Etruscan civilization refers to the first millennium before the new era. At this time in the territory of ancient Rome, the first city-states appear, which are united in a federation.

The Etruscans had a very developed culture. Especially it was related to architecture. Archaeological research showed that the architecture of Etruscan cities was specific. For the layout of city streets, extreme clarity, geometric consistency of shapes, orientation of buildings in accordance with the sides of the world was very characteristic.

Another architectural merit of Etruscan culture is the appearance of buildings with a dome vault.

The importance of the Etruscans is also great for the world of writing. It is in the Etruscan period that the Latin alphabet appears, which, as is well known, was very widespread, and in the Middle Ages and New Times was generally considered compulsory for any educated person. Even in the modern world, although it was no longer used as a colloquial language by the 9th century, it is used in medicine, biology, other sciences close to them, and even in jurisprudence, Latin letters for various designations in physics, mathematics, etc. are widely used.

Roman numerals invented back in the days of Etruscan civilization are widely used today.

The Etruscan arts have reached great heights. Magnificent works of art were ceramics, especially lacquered in such a way as to imitate the metal surface.

Archaeologists have discovered wonderful jewelry, jewelry, bronze sculptures and terracotta, indicating a high level of then-master craftsmen.

The opinion on the perfection of the Roman portrait was significantly influenced by Etruscan painting with its desire for realism. There was no custom of the ancient centuries of idealization, works of fine art were passed on as it is.

The religious beliefs of the Etruscans were significantly influenced by the beliefs of Ancient Greece. Etruscan culture adopted the Greek pantheon of the gods, although worship was not widespread enough, and in religion of great importance were all kinds of divinations and interpretations of various phenomena occurring.

Having absorbed the various cultural achievements of neighboring states, the Etruscan civilization itself was the creator of its culture, which was spread and adopted by other civilizations.

Etruscan civilization as an independent existed until the fifth century to a new era. Gradually, she lost her possessions as a result of invasions from neighboring territories. And already by the third century before the new era, Etruscan civilization was completely subdued by the city of Rome that appeared on the territory of the Apennine peninsula. This event marked the end of Etruscan culture and the beginning of a new cultural stage – the royal period.

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Writing an essay on social studies is one of the tasks of entrance examinations to a university or college. This is a creative work that allows you to assess the current level of student knowledge: his ability to own and use terminology, express his thoughts and argue them.

In what sequence should I write an essay?

The structure of writing an essay on social studies:

1. Thesis.

Choosing a quote for an essay, you need to be sure that you understand its meaning. Think about whether you will be able to express your own opinion on this matter, reasonably refute the statement or agree with it, justifying your position.

2. The meaning of the quote.

Next, we should formulate our interpretation of the main idea of the utterance, which is based on personal understanding and general impression of the quotation. It should be remembered that the originality of the interpretation arises naturally in a profound analysis, the desire to understand the theme and be imbued with it.

3. Argumentation of his position.

After the disclosure of the main idea of the statement follows the presentation of their opinion and its rationale. In this case, you can fully agree with the author, you can do it partially, or you cannot agree, but categorically refute the statement. It should be borne in mind that when writing an essay for admission it is much easier to accept the statement and find a competent justification in the form of experience and personal sensations than to refute the quote of a knowingly intelligent person. When uttering the opposite opinion than the author of the quote, it is necessary to more thoroughly confirm and argue his point of view, paying attention to details and viewing the statement from various positions.

Justification of your opinion can occur on two levels:

Theoretical. At the same time, knowledge of social science is used: concepts, opinions of scientists, etc.

Empirical. Here you can use both the experience that exists in the history of society or literature, and your own experience.

Tip 1: when using social science terms, you should be sure of their correct understanding and appropriate use, you do not need to overload the essay with terminology.

Tip 2: when choosing any historical facts or events from personal experience, one should pay attention to their credibility in confirming their own opinion, reasonableness and consistency.

4. Conclusion

In conclusion of the essay on social studies, it is necessary to briefly formulate a conclusion summarizing all the reflections.

An example of an essay plan on social studies

1. Introduction.

The essence of this statement from the standpoint of social science is….

The choice of the topic is explained… The topic is undoubtedly relevant…

2. The main part.

In my opinion, the author of the statement… I agree with the opinion… This can be refuted…

Here are other opinions on the stated problem, terms and concepts from the social sciences, their own experience.

3. Conclusion: conclusion and generalization.

Thus, the above examples confirm…

Writing tips

The most important thing is to train regularly in writing essays, handing them over to the teacher for testing, and paying attention to the development of his remarks.

Observe the logical sequence of presentation, do not jump from one example to another.

Do not write all the essays on the draft: sketch out only the plan and the main ideas.

Give an example for each theoretical postulate.

Learn to adequately and objectively evaluate both your own and others’ essays.

Read the criteria for assessing the essay on social studies and pay attention to each point in the writing process.

Do not get confused in terms and concepts of social science.

Practice revealing the meaning of the statement on any aphorisms.

Watch the news, memorize the examples from the lessons that you can use as evidence of your position.

Criteria for evaluating the essay at the entrance examinations in 2018

Essays, as a creative composition, from other ways of controlling knowledge are distinguished by the ability to diagnose the ability of students to analyze information, intelligently interpret it, build reasoning and argue in the form of correctly selected facts, formulate their own opinion and defend their position.

Thus, for effective preparation for an essay on social studies, you should train in writing them as often as possible, following the above-listed advice and adhering to the required structure. However, this isn’t the only way to “fill your hand” and go to the exam with confidence. Alternatively, you may buy the ready written unique papers at essay writing service and free some time for yourself.

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Another characteristic of the XX century. indicator – a constant desire to unite, internationalization. If earlier the culture had more clear and certain national borders, expressed in cultural differences between different states, then for modern times these borders became less and less strict and distinct. The main reason for such an interethnic association is the scientific and technological revolution, which allowed for closer contact between countries. Of course, this interpenetration of cultures of different states was not always peaceful and peaceful. It is worth remembering the political conflicts that lead to world wars and other confrontations. And, if we follow the course of history, it is clear that the most problematic relations between states were characteristic of the first half of the 20th century. The second half turned out to be more calm and serene, as a result of which the internationalization went much faster and more progressively.

Global changes in people’s lives associated with the transition to a new kind of society – the capitalist, as well as a huge leap in the development of scientific knowledge and other factors could not but affect the culture. As a reaction to these changes – the emergence of new cultural forms.

For example, let’s turn to painting. A number of new, very often completely original forms appeared, such as:

1. Nabism (from the French nabis – “vices” and from the Hebrew Nabis – “prophet”);
2. Fauvism (from the French fauve – “wild”);
3. Cubism (from the French cubisme, from the cube – “cube”).

Nabism originated in Paris around 1890. Its creators were artists Maurice Denis (1870-1943), Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947), and others.

Nabists, based on modernity, combined literary symbolism, musicality of rhythms and decorative generalization of forms.

From 1905 to 1907 there was another trend in painting – Fauvism. It, like Nabism, appeared in France under the influence of such painters as Henri Matisse (1869-1954), Albert Marquet (1875-1947), Georges Rouault (1871-1958), Raoul Dufy (1877-1953), Maurice de Vlaminck (1876-1958). Fauvism was characterized by a desire for emotionality in the transfer of artistic images, dynamism and color intensity.

In the first quarter of the 20th in France the heyday of cubism begins, which later appeared in other countries. The most famous of his representative – Pablo Picasso (1881-1973). In 1907 he, together with the French painter Georges Braque (1882-1963), created a direction for which it was peculiar to highlight formal experiments, such as three-dimensional shapes on the plane, geometric figures (sphere, cube, cylinder, etc.). For Cubism, a certain analysis is characteristic, that is, the decomposition of complex forms into simpler ones. Picasso, using neutral tones, combining geometric forms in various ways, creates absolutely radical works of art (Queen Isabo, Lady with a Fan (1909), Portrait of A. Vollard (1910), Dryad, Farmer “,” Three Women “(1909-1910 gg.)).

Cubism had two stages of development:

• analytical (1907-1909);
• synthetic (since 1913).

The synthetic stage of cubism differs from the analytical by the greater chromaticity of forms, the flat image of objects.

But Picasso did not stand still, he was constantly looking for new forms for expression. As a result, in the early 20-ies he comes to a new direction – surrealism (“Metamorphoses” (1930)).

Surrealism (from the French surrealisme – “superrealism”) chose as the source of artistic images the sphere of the subconscious. The surrealists used instincts, their dreams and hallucinations.

At the initial stage, surrealism served as a reflection of the absurd reality that the post-war world represented. And if you pull the subconscious out, then, according to artists, this way you can improve the world. The largest figure in the world of surreal painting was the Spanish painter Salvador Dali (1904-1989). His works (The Poetry of America (1943), The Portrait of Picasso (1947), The Madonna of the Port of Ligat (1949), The Dream, caused by the flight of a bee around a pomegranate, a second before awakening (1944)), “Atomic Leda” (1947), etc.) are distinguished by courage, boundless imagination, virtuosity in performance, as well as a multitude of contradictions and a combination of seemingly incongruous things and objects.

But surrealism touched on other types of art (literature, theater, cinema).

If the transition to the XX century. affected the painting, then he had no noticeable influence on the literature. Literary art continued to develop, but without cardinal changes.

The beginning of the XX century is associated with the emergence of a huge number of talented writers. In France, it is worth noting Marcel Proust (1871-1922), Andrejid (1869-1951), Georges Bernanos (1888-1948), François Mauriac (1885-1970), etc. At this time, the heyday of the French novel, which is becoming more intense, heartbreaking and frank.

In the English and German literature there has been a tendency to follow classical traditions. An example is the works of the English novelist John Galsworthy (1867-1933), the German writer Thomas Mann (1875-1955).

Despite the adherence to classical traditions, in the literature of the XX century. the influence of modernism is very noticeable. This influence can be traced in Marcel Proust’s novel In Search of Lost Time, the works of Austrian writer Franz Kafka (The Process, America, and others), the Irish writer James Joyce (1882-1941) (The Dubliners, Ulysses, “Portrait of an artist in his youth”). Many writers in their works use a new creative principle, characteristic of Western European literature of the early 20th century, a “stream of consciousness.” For the first time this term was used by American philosopher and psychologist William James in his book “Scientific Foundations of Psychology” (1890). This principle is understood as the transfer of processes of psychic life, a kind of “internal monologue.” This makes you believe in your presence in the conditions described by the author when reading the book, to empathize more with the heroes.

The Second World War affected not only people’s lives, but also culture. In philosophy and literature, a new direction emerged: existentialism (from the late-ex. Exsistentia – “existence”). The main theme of existentialism is human existence with its manifestations (fears, cares, consciences, etc.).

Existentialism has two branches:

1. religious existentialism (German philosopher Karl Jaspers, French philosopher and playwright Gabriel Honore Marcel, etc.);
2. atheistic existentialism (French writer Jean Paul Sartre, French writer and thinker Albert Camus).

Probably one of the most significant events in the history of culture of the 20th century. – the emergence of a new (“seventh”) art form, cinema. At the initial stage it was a silent movie, but in 1927 the cinema becomes sound. Cinema art cannot be regarded as an isolated art form, because it is a synthesis of literature, theater, music, fine arts, etc. At the initial stage of its existence, the film associates with such names as Renee Claire, Jean Renoir, Jean Cocteau and Marcel Carne. These outstanding French directors made the cinema independent.

The films of the postwar period are primarily the films of Jean Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Roberto Rossellini, Luis Buñuel, Frederico Fellini, and others.

The first two decades after the end of World War II, the troubled cinema of the “new wave” is in the lead. In its place comes the flowering of comedy. There are fantastic films, melodramas, adventures, action films and many other genres. A huge role in the cinema is played by the United States. Hollywood is of particular importance. It was here before the 50’s. was the main part of the American film industry. In the American cinema there is a new national genre – a western. Gradually, the US has become a leader in filmmaking. Here there is the greatest number of films and movie stars. Hollywood is the pioneer of American aesthetics and the standards of mass culture in the United States, whose influence on the rest is enormous.

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An important feature of the fine arts of Ancient Egypt is the fulfillment and preservation of its main accepted canons. Technique, style, proportions and other aspects of fine art have been unchanged for centuries and even millennia.

What happened in ancient Egypt with writing? Very few texts of that time have reached us. Basically, these are different prayers and records related to housekeeping. They date back to the second millennium BC. But we must assume that there were more ancient texts.

The work “Conversation of the Disappointed with His Soul” is interesting. It is significant because it is a very abstract composition. In him, a man who has not made sense in his life, thinks about suicide. His soul, on the contrary, tries to dissuade it in every possible way.

In general, the literature of Ancient Egypt is very diverse, there were works of absolutely different genres: novels, teachings, songs, spells, autobiographies, etc.

The origin of writing is usually attributed to the thirtieth century before the new era, this is due primarily to what Egypt’s state system demanded.

There are three stages in the development of writing in ancient Egypt:

1. hieroglyphic writing;
2. hieratic writing (business cursive writing);
3. demotic writing (folk cursive).

It should be noted that it was in ancient Egypt that this kind of art appeared, like music. Its appearance is associated primarily with various ritual ceremonies and festivities, which led to the emergence of dances, pantomime, etc. The music that appeared at that time began to be divided into:

1. cult;
2. the people’s;
3. the court.

Very often Egyptian frescoes of the second millennium BC can be seen images of various musical instruments (drums, harps, lyre, etc.). This suggests that music played a huge role in the life of the Egyptians. No wonder the musicians were considered relatives of the pharaohs, they enjoyed great respect and respect in society.

Various life situations and needs led to the development of the country and science, without which then no longer existed any further existence.

First of all, it’s mathematics. After all, how can you create such a grandiose structure as a pyramid without mathematics, without calculating areas and volumes?

Watching the heavenly lights, the Egyptians created a perfectly accurate calendar. It, like the modern one, consisted of 365 days, but differed in that it had only three, and not four seasons, each of which was three months old.

Another merit of the ancient Egyptians is the clock, they were watery, sunny.

Great achievements were in medicine. Began to create clinics, in which there were quite real recipes and a few witchcraft. There were teachings on blood circulation, the doctrine of the main organ is the heart.

In ancient Egypt, there were several types of physicians:

1. the “uterine”;
2. tooth;
3. the eye.

There was also such kind of medical activity, as surgery.

In addition to the above sciences, such humanities as geography and history developed.

All this cultural development led to the fact that in ancient Egypt, the first schools began to appear. At first they were schools for scribes who were at the court of Pharaoh, then all boys aged from five to sixteen began to give to school. At school, they were taught writing, reading, sports, etiquette, etc. Military schools appeared, etc.

The culture of Ancient Egypt is very rich and diverse. She made a great contribution to the culture of all mankind.

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So where did this powerful empire and the Egyptians come from? There is a lot of controversy here. But most Egyptologists are inclined to two opinions.

1. The ancient Egyptians were from Asia. This is evidenced by their language and character traits.
2. Ancient Egyptians are relatives of Negro peoples. In favor of this version is the Egyptian cult of the dead, their worship of animals and inanimate objects (fetishism).

But whoever was right, in any case, by the fourth millennium before the new era on the banks of the Nile River, the Egyptian nationality was formed, and the first signs of statehood began to form there.

What was the state in ancient Egypt?

The head of state in Egypt was the pharaoh, who owned absolute power, all of Egypt with all its many resources. Such absolute rights of Pharaoh were bestowed on the religion of the ancient Egyptians. It is according to religion that a person must obey unquestioningly Pharaoh, otherwise he is threatened with terrible consequences.

Religion played a big role in the life of the ancient Egyptians. They were pagans, that is, they worshiped not only one, but many gods. According to some reports, there were from hundreds to thousands of various gods. The main was the sun god, who, depending on the time of day, had different names (Ra, Atum, etc.). It is the gods who endowed the Pharaohs with the boundless power according to the Egyptian religion. But despite its divinity, not all the pharaohs were satisfied with this way of thinking the Egyptians, their worship of a vast number of gods. Namely, the existing polytheism could not help strengthen the Egyptian state, its centralization. All this resulted in religious reform. Its essence was that the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1368-1351) declared the solar disk as the true God. He gave him the name of the god Aton, he called himself Akhenaten, which in translation meant “pleasing to God Aton.” The next stage of his reforms was the closure of temples in which other gods were worshiped, all the property of these temples was confiscated. As a result, many disgruntled people appeared. The priests did not want to put up with the changes in religious life. Therefore, these reforms Akhenaten were short-lived, soon the cults of the old gods were restored.

The religion of the Egyptians greatly influenced their culture.

A special place in the art of Ancient Egypt was occupied by architecture, and the most significant profession was the architect, who continuously watched the construction on the grandiose construction sites typical of Egypt at that time.

An interesting fact is that if the dwellings of the ancient Egyptians were built from short-lived materials, such as raw brick, then various religious structures were erected from a solid stone. This explains why they could stand up to our times.

The architecture of Ancient Egypt no longer appears without its main cultural asset – the pyramids. The pyramids were buildings for the gods. They were built up of strong stones.

The construction of the pyramids was so grandiose that it is difficult to imagine how much it was ruinous for the treasury of the state, how much human labor was spent, how numerous were the human losses.

According to the teachings of the Egyptian priests, the soul of man was immortal. In ancient Egypt, a great role was played by the funeral cult. According to him, with death, only the material basis of man, that is, his body, perishes. And that the immaterial basis of man, his soul, continued to live, it is necessary to create the most favorable conditions for this, that is, to try to preserve the body of the deceased person. So there was a new art – making mummies. And for the mummy there must be a specially designated place – a tomb. As such tombs, in which the human body would be under powerful protection from all strangers, grandiose pyramids were built. According to the Egyptians’ belief, the body was connected with the soul exactly seventy days after death, the deceased revived and went to the Land of Eternity. But despite the fact that, according to the doctrine, the soul of each person is immortal, the pyramids were built only for the nobility and, of course, for the pharaohs.

The very first pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser (2780-2680) was erected about five thousand years ago, its architect was Imhotep (around the eighteenth century BC). He will be honored as the great king’s architect and wise magician for many generations after him.

In all there were about a hundred pyramids, only a part of them came to us.

The most famous and grandiose is the pyramid of the pharaoh of the IV dynasty of Cheops (Khufu). It is located in the Egyptian city of Giza. Its dimensions are enormous: the height is 146.6 m, and the area is about 55,000 sq. M. m. It was built of huge limestone stones, the mass of which reached 3 tons. According to scientists, for the construction of the pyramid of Cheops were spent 2,300,000 of these stones. Inside the pyramid is a system of moves, the inner walls are covered with polished slabs.

In addition to the pyramid of Cheops, in Giza there are other well-known pyramids: Pharaoh Khafre and Pharaoh Micherin. All these three pyramids in Giza are one of the seven wonders of the world.

By the second millennium before the new era, there have been some changes in the construction of the pyramids. They cease to be so grandiose and become less ruinous, since they are no longer built of stones, but of brick.

Numerous robberies of the pyramids led to the fact that by the first millennium the pyramids began to be replaced by secret burial vaults, although they continued to be robbed. One of the most famous such tombs are the funerary temple of the pharaoh Mentukhotep I, which is a rock tomb, and the funeral temple of Queen Hatshepsut, located on three rock terraces in the Deir el-Bahri valley and built by Senenmut.

In addition to architecture, a rich contribution to the culture of Ancient Egypt was made by the fine arts.

Very often, in front of the palaces or temples, various obelisks were placed. They were thin and tall, often covered with copper from above. Obelisks are often painted with hieroglyphics. The hieroglyph is a pictorial symbolic letter, which is very characteristic of the culture of Ancient Egypt. It was from the Egyptian hieroglyphic letter that a syllabic letter appeared.

Another widely used image in ancient Egypt was a stone image of a creature with a lion body and a human head. Such statues were often placed in front of the funeral temples and were called sphinxes. Before the pyramid of Pharaoh Khafre stands the largest of the sphinxes, which was created in the first half of the third millennium BC. The length of this statue is about 57 m. Later, in the sixteenth century BC, between the paws of the “father of trepidation”, as the sphinx called for the fear that he inspired, a temple was erected.

In addition to these monuments, there were many other masterpieces of art, all kinds of statues, stelae and other monuments depicting Egyptian rulers and their families.

It was in ancient Egypt that one of the most beautiful female images was created – a sculptural portrait of Queen Nefertiti, who was the wife of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1368-1351).

According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, portrait statues are twins of dead people. Therefore, the sculptural portrait, was widely used in Egypt in ancient times.

All monuments of culture (paintings, portraits, etc.) in Ancient Egypt were distinguished by a sense of harmony, the desire for beauty, for integrity. This desire for integrity and determines the fact that in ancient Egypt were distributed architectural ensembles, representing a kind of synthesis of all kinds of art. Sculptors, architects, painters worked together, creating holistic works of art, many of which are unrivaled to this day. The architects had a very unusual approach to the business creating their architectural monuments, they did not forget about very small details, took into account many characteristics, such as geographical location, illumination at different times of the day, etc. This sometimes gave unusual effects. No wonder the architect was often credited with magical powers, some deified.

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Culture of the population of the North Caucasus in the III millennium BC. E., in the era of early bronze, was named Maikop on the famous monument, its representative, – Maikop burial mound. Maikop culture was spread from the Taman Peninsula in the north-west to Dagestan in the southeast.

The last stage in the development of the Bronze Age tribes in the North-Western Caucasus is characterized by the existence of a large focus of metallurgy and metalworking. Copper ore was mined, copper was smelted, production of finished products from alloys (bronze) was established.

At the end of this period, along with bronze objects, iron begins to appear, which marks the beginning of a new period.

The development of the productive forces leads to the fact that part of the shepherds’ tribes passes to nomadic cattle breeding. Other tribes, continuing to lead a settled way of life on the basis of agriculture, move to a higher stage of development – plow farming. At this time, there are social shifts within the tribes.

In the late period of the primitive society, art crafts developed: articles of bronze, gold, and silver were made.

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One of the most striking events of that time was the transition of man from the stage of the skillful (Homo habilis) to the stage of the rational (Homosapiens). This transition did not happen overnight, he had to overcome a long and difficult path. Until now, scientists are arguing about how it all happened when a reasonable person appeared, as he settled around the globe.

Many people tend to think that a man came from the African monkeys 8-5 million years ago, because the monkeys were divided into two branches. In one there were great apes, such as chimpanzees; in the other – Australopithecus, the ancestral form of man.

How did a man differ from a monkey? The whole point is that for a person the world around him is the object of his thought and speech. The formation of communities with certain goals led to the formation of mankind. As a result – the emergence of art.

The vast period of the primitive epoch makes it logical to periodize it. Periods of the primitive world:

1. Stone Age (2 million – 6 thousand years ago). It is in turn divided into:
   1. ancient, another name – Paleolithic, it consists of the lower, middle and upper (late);
   2. medium (mesolite);
   3. New (Neolithic);
2. the copper age (4-3 thousand years BC);
3. the Bronze Age (the beginning of the first millennium BC);
4. Iron Age (from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC).

One of the most striking achievements of the primitive man is his mastery of such skills as farming and cattle breeding. It happened about ten thousand years ago. How did people feed themselves before that? Their extraction of food at that time was not very different from animal habits.

There were three ways to get food:

1. gathering;
2. hunting;
3. fishing.

It is interesting that in the Paleolithic people of that time can follow reasonable solutions to problems. For example, despite the fact that the hunting tools were very primitive, a brilliant tactic helped them to starve, with the help of which they hunted animals. Only at the beginning of the Mesolithic bow and arrows appear, and hence the main quality of the hunter is now not the strength and tactics of action, but accuracy. At the same time, the fishing technique was improved, such devices as hooks and nets appeared, which are still in use.

In the era of the Mesolithic, there are first signs that people are moving from appropriation to agriculture. This is evidenced by such finds related to the Mesolithic epoch, such as sickles, grains of barley, wheat, etc.

In addition to farming, people began to develop and another type of farming – livestock. Scientists tend to argue that it was the farmers who first began to tame animals.

All this contributed to the alleviation of human life and, as a consequence, the growth of the human race.

Now man is not just part of nature. He himself is able to change the world around him, in particular, through art.

Already in the Stone Age, the first signs of the fact that a person begins to express himself through various kinds of art were discovered. In 1836 a French geologist, archaeologist Edouard Parte (1801-1871), in the Schaffthau grotto in the department of Vienne, discovered a plate on which engraving was made. E. Larthe was the founder of paleontology, he discovered the Aurignacian culture. This is the name of the culture of the late Paleolithic in Western Europe. A variety of female figurines of bone and stone have survived. These figurines, talking about the cult of the mother-ancestor, are called Venus. It is interesting that in different remote regions of the globe (Italy, Austria, Russia, France), similar Venes are found.

But still the main thing in art was the topic of hunting. And the main object of creativity were animals. Various found images of animals of primitive epoch indicate that hunters have very thoroughly studied various habits of animals. Comprehending the world around him, a man very accurately managed to depict animals on engravings, in sculptures made of stone, wood or clay. But the images of people were incomparably few, since the man himself did not enjoy such great attention as the world around him.

In the primeval epoch, people begin to use all sorts of symbols to convey their feelings and visions. The symbols of that time can be not only realistic and understandable, but also extremely conditional. These symbols bear a great aesthetic load, which conveys the feelings and opinions of the author.

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